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supercells are rotating thunderstorms

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supercells are rotating thunderstorms
 

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supercells are rotating thunderstorms
that can cause tornadoes and hail the

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that can cause tornadoes and hail the
 

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that can cause tornadoes and hail the
most widely accepted theory for storm

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most widely accepted theory for storm
 

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most widely accepted theory for storm
spin up produces a pair of counter

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spin up produces a pair of counter
 

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spin up produces a pair of counter
rotating supercells but such pairs are

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rotating supercells but such pairs are
 

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rotating supercells but such pairs are
rarely observed in the troposphere and a

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rarely observed in the troposphere and a
 

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rarely observed in the troposphere and a
theory is needed that produces a single

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theory is needed that produces a single
 

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theory is needed that produces a single
supercell a new mathematical model

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supercell a new mathematical model
 

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supercell a new mathematical model
called vertical rotating draft has been

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called vertical rotating draft has been
 

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called vertical rotating draft has been
developed that includes the gross

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developed that includes the gross
 

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developed that includes the gross
features of a supercell in highly

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features of a supercell in highly
 

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features of a supercell in highly
idealized form this new model produces a

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idealized form this new model produces a
 

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idealized form this new model produces a
single supercell principal ingredients

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single supercell principal ingredients
 

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single supercell principal ingredients
of the model include rotation about a

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of the model include rotation about a
 

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of the model include rotation about a
vertical axis horizontal convergence in

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vertical axis horizontal convergence in
 

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vertical axis horizontal convergence in
the middle troposphere caused by the

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the middle troposphere caused by the
 

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the middle troposphere caused by the
compression of sinking air parcels

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buoyancy

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and the Coriolis force

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when these ingredients are used in fluid

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when these ingredients are used in fluid
 

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when these ingredients are used in fluid
dynamic equations the horizontal

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dynamic equations the horizontal
 

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dynamic equations the horizontal
pressure gradient is found to be zero

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pressure gradient is found to be zero
 

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pressure gradient is found to be zero
and air parcels move along inertial

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and air parcels move along inertial
 

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and air parcels move along inertial
circles projected on a horizontal

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circles projected on a horizontal
 

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circles projected on a horizontal
surface this circular motion gives the

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surface this circular motion gives the
 

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surface this circular motion gives the
model and inertial oscillation that

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model and inertial oscillation that
 

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model and inertial oscillation that
appears to have been overlooked in

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appears to have been overlooked in
 

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appears to have been overlooked in
previous supercell models the inertial

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previous supercell models the inertial
 

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previous supercell models the inertial
oscillation consists of a long quiescent

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oscillation consists of a long quiescent
 

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oscillation consists of a long quiescent
phase when the draft diameter is large

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phase when the draft diameter is large
 

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phase when the draft diameter is large
and rotates anti cyclonic Lee and a

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and rotates anti cyclonic Lee and a
 

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and rotates anti cyclonic Lee and a
short intense phase when the draft

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short intense phase when the draft
 

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short intense phase when the draft
diameter is small and rotates cyclonic

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diameter is small and rotates cyclonic
 

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diameter is small and rotates cyclonic
ly one cycle of mathematically driven

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ly one cycle of mathematically driven
 

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ly one cycle of mathematically driven
animation represents 13 hours of

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animation represents 13 hours of
 

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animation represents 13 hours of
quiescent phase and five hours of

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quiescent phase and five hours of
 

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quiescent phase and five hours of
intense phase during the intense phase

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intense phase during the intense phase
 

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intense phase during the intense phase
of the inertial oscillation the rotating

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of the inertial oscillation the rotating
 

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of the inertial oscillation the rotating
draft resembles a supercell rising

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draft resembles a supercell rising
 

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draft resembles a supercell rising
parcels of air expand causing the draft

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parcels of air expand causing the draft
 

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parcels of air expand causing the draft
to expand and rotate anti cyclonic Li

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to expand and rotate anti cyclonic Li
 

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to expand and rotate anti cyclonic Li
the updraft changes to a downdraft

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the updraft changes to a downdraft
 

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the updraft changes to a downdraft
contracts and rotation becomes cyclonic

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downdraft is driven by evaporative

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downdraft is driven by evaporative
 

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downdraft is driven by evaporative
cooling and updraft by condensation

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cooling and updraft by condensation
 

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cooling and updraft by condensation
aletan expanding flow interacts with the

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aletan expanding flow interacts with the
 

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aletan expanding flow interacts with the
Coriolis force to produce anti cyclonic

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Coriolis force to produce anti cyclonic
 

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Coriolis force to produce anti cyclonic
rotation during the quiescent phase

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contracting flow interacts with the

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contracting flow interacts with the
 

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contracting flow interacts with the
Coriolis force to produce cyclonic

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Coriolis force to produce cyclonic
 

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Coriolis force to produce cyclonic
rotation during the intense phase

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additional physical ingredients of the

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additional physical ingredients of the
 

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additional physical ingredients of the
model include translation of the

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model include translation of the
 

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model include translation of the
rotating draft and vertical wind shear

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rotating draft and vertical wind shear
 

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rotating draft and vertical wind shear
the rotating draft moves at a constant

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the rotating draft moves at a constant
 

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the rotating draft moves at a constant
height above the surface of the earth

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height above the surface of the earth
 

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height above the surface of the earth
the intense phase has a small buoyant

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the intense phase has a small buoyant
 

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the intense phase has a small buoyant
draft cyclonic rotation marked by a

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draft cyclonic rotation marked by a
 

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draft cyclonic rotation marked by a
track that turns to the right this right

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track that turns to the right this right
 

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track that turns to the right this right
turn is a salient feature of actual

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turn is a salient feature of actual
 

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turn is a salient feature of actual
supercells the quiescent phase has a

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supercells the quiescent phase has a
 

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supercells the quiescent phase has a
large negatively buoyant draft with

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large negatively buoyant draft with
 

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large negatively buoyant draft with
antipsychotic rotation latent heating

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antipsychotic rotation latent heating
 

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antipsychotic rotation latent heating
changes the downdraft to an updraft in

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changes the downdraft to an updraft in
 

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changes the downdraft to an updraft in
the middle of the intense phase this

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the middle of the intense phase this
 

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the middle of the intense phase this
flow reversal interacts with the

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flow reversal interacts with the
 

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flow reversal interacts with the
vertical wind shear to cause the right

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vertical wind shear to cause the right
 

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vertical wind shear to cause the right
turn the latent energy required to

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turn the latent energy required to
 

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turn the latent energy required to
support this inertial oscillation is

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support this inertial oscillation is
 

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support this inertial oscillation is
greatest during the quiescent phase when

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greatest during the quiescent phase when
 

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greatest during the quiescent phase when
the draft diameter is large a supercell

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the draft diameter is large a supercell
 

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the draft diameter is large a supercell
storm that produced one and one half

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storm that produced one and one half
 

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storm that produced one and one half
centimeter hail is documented by radar

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centimeter hail is documented by radar
 

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centimeter hail is documented by radar
echoes spaced 30 minutes apart these

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echoes spaced 30 minutes apart these
 

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echoes spaced 30 minutes apart these
echoes become increasingly stronger as

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echoes become increasingly stronger as
 

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echoes become increasingly stronger as
the supercell bills the track turns to

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the supercell bills the track turns to
 

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the supercell bills the track turns to
the right hail is produced and strong

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the right hail is produced and strong
 

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the right hail is produced and strong
echoes are recorded the echoes then

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echoes are recorded the echoes then
 

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echoes are recorded the echoes then
weaken as the supercell dissipates

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weaken as the supercell dissipates
 

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weaken as the supercell dissipates
application of the mathematical model

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application of the mathematical model
 

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application of the mathematical model
starts in the middle of the quiescent

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starts in the middle of the quiescent
 

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starts in the middle of the quiescent
phase the first week radar echoes are in

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phase the first week radar echoes are in
 

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phase the first week radar echoes are in
theory created by a growing up draft in

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theory created by a growing up draft in
 

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theory created by a growing up draft in
a predominantly downward airflow after

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a predominantly downward airflow after
 

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a predominantly downward airflow after
the turning point the strong echoes and

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the turning point the strong echoes and
 

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the turning point the strong echoes and
hail are created in theory by a

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hail are created in theory by a
 

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hail are created in theory by a
predominantly upward airflow data from

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predominantly upward airflow data from
 

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predominantly upward airflow data from
the documented supercell storm generally

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the documented supercell storm generally
 

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the documented supercell storm generally
support the intense phase of the model

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support the intense phase of the model
 

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support the intense phase of the model
however the quiescent phase of the model

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however the quiescent phase of the model
 

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however the quiescent phase of the model
is not supported by the storm data

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is not supported by the storm data
 

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is not supported by the storm data
possibly because the quiescent phase

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possibly because the quiescent phase
 

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possibly because the quiescent phase
requires too much latent energy the new

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requires too much latent energy the new
 

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requires too much latent energy the new
mathematical model called vertical

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mathematical model called vertical
 

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mathematical model called vertical
rotating draft has an inertial

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rotating draft has an inertial
 

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rotating draft has an inertial
oscillation with an intense phase that

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oscillation with an intense phase that
 

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oscillation with an intense phase that
resembles a single supercell

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resembles a single supercell
 

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resembles a single supercell
this intense phase starts with a

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this intense phase starts with a
 

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this intense phase starts with a
predominantly downward flow that causes

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predominantly downward flow that causes
 

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predominantly downward flow that causes
the draft to contract and spin up partly

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the draft to contract and spin up partly
 

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the draft to contract and spin up partly
by action of the Coriolis force more

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by action of the Coriolis force more
 

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by action of the Coriolis force more
research remains to be done they

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research remains to be done they
 

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research remains to be done they
predominantly downward flow that

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predominantly downward flow that
 

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predominantly downward flow that
theoretically occurs before the turning

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theoretically occurs before the turning
 

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theoretically occurs before the turning
point in a supercell track needs to be

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point in a supercell track needs to be
 

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point in a supercell track needs to be
detected and measured this down flow if

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detected and measured this down flow if
 

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detected and measured this down flow if
confirmed by measurements would strongly

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confirmed by measurements would strongly
 

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confirmed by measurements would strongly
support this new theory for the spin up

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support this new theory for the spin up
 

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support this new theory for the spin up
of supercell storms